Sungyun Yang ¹, Byung Ha Kang ¹, Hyeongho Min ¹, Juan P Wachs ², Farshid Alambeigi ³, Jaydev P Desai ⁴, Pierre E Dupont ⁵, Kurt Yaeger ⁶, Katherine Anderson ⁷, Alan Kuntz ⁸, Ron Alterovitz ⁹, Robert J Webster 3rd ¹⁰, Nobuhiko Hata ¹¹, Janani S Reisenauer ¹², McKenna Clinch ¹³, Alex Abramson ^4,13,14, Jie Ying Wu ⁸, Tommaso Ranzani ¹⁵, Peter C Kim ^16,17, Alex S Huang ¹⁸, Cheng Sun ¹⁹, Hao F Zhang ²⁰, Cameron N Riviere ²¹, Eric R Henderson ²², Michael Yip ²³, Xiaoguang Dong ^10,24,25, Daniel A Wollin ²⁶, David H Gracias ^27,28,29,30, Lamar O Mair ³¹, Michael Karpelson ³², Robert J Wood ³², Itai Cohen ^33,34, Michael S Strano <sup>1*

1</sup>Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
²Edwardson School of Industrial Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA.
³Walker Department of Mechanical Engineering and Texas Robotics, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA.
⁴Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA.
⁵Department of Cardiac Surgery, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
⁶Department of Neurological Surgery, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
⁷1955 Capital & K2A2 Consulting LLC (Biomedical Engineering), Signal Mountain, TN 37377, USA.
⁸Department of Computer Science, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA.
⁹Department of Computer Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
¹⁰Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37240, USA.
¹¹National Center for Image Guided Therapy, Department of Radiology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 75 Francis Street, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
¹²Division of Thoracic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA.
¹³School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA.
¹⁴Division of Digestive Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30307, USA.
¹⁵Department of Mechanical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
¹⁶Department of Surgery, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA.
¹⁷Activ Surgical Inc., Boston, MA 02210, USA.
¹⁸Hamilton Glaucoma Center, Viterbi Family Department of Ophthalmology and the Shiley Eye Institute, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
¹⁹Department of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA.
²⁰Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA.
²¹Robotics Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
²²Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA.
²³Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
²⁴Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA.
²⁵Vanderbilt Institute for Surgery and Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA.
²⁶Department of Urology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
²⁷Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218 USA.
²⁸Department of Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA.
²⁹Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA.
³⁰Department of Oncology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
³¹Weinberg Medical Physics Inc., North Bethesda, MD 20852, USA.
³²Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
³³Laboratory of Atomic and Solid-State Physics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA.
³⁴Kavli Institute at Cornell for Nanoscale Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA.

*Corresponding author.